The five oceans of the world hide many living and non-living secrets. Seamounts are underwater mountains, and some even rival the height of the tallest peaks on land.

A seamount is a large submarine landform rising at least 3,281 feet (1,000 meters) from the seafloor.

Unlike islands, seamounts do not break the ocean's surface.

Most are remnants of extinct volcanoes formed as magma pushes through the Earth's crust and solidifies.

Over time, i.e., millions of years, erosion and subsidence can shape these volcanic features into distinct forms similar to those we can actually climb on land.

Seamounts with flat tops, called guyots or tablemounts, are evidence of past wave erosion before they sank back below sea level.

But they can also form the ring-shaped coral reefs surrounding a lagoon called atolls.

These underwater formations are not only diverse in form but also in scale.

From small peaks barely meeting the height criterion to massive structures like the Detroit Seamount in the Pacific, with its 39,000-square-mile (100,000-square-kilometers) base, there are all sorts of striking features of the ocean floor.

The Cortes Bank, which is technically a seamount, occasionally provides spectacular waves for surfing 110 miles (177 kilometers) west of the coast of San Diego, California.

How Are Seamounts Formed?

As we've seen above, seamounts are predominantly volcanic in origin, created by processes such as:

• Mantle Plumes and Hotspots: Rising magma plumes from the Earth's mantle create volcanic islands and seamount chains. The Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain is a well-known example;
• Mid-Ocean Ridges: Divergent tectonic plates at mid-ocean ridges allow magma to rise and solidify, forming volcanic features;
• Island Arcs: Subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced under another, generate seamounts along island arcs like the Marianas;

Where Are They Found?

Seamounts are distributed across every ocean basin, with the greatest concentrations in the Pacific Ocean.

They are often clustered in chains or groups, such as the Emperor Seamounts, which extend northwest from Hawaii.

Other notable chains include the New England Seamounts in the Atlantic and the Louisville Ridge in the southern Pacific.

Interestingly, the Arctic Ocean has very few seamounts, while the North Pacific holds the majority, including the largest mapped seamounts.

Despite advances in mapping technologies like satellite altimetry and multibeam sonar, only a fraction of the estimated 100,000 seamounts have been fully charted.

The Tallest, Deepest, and Longest

A seamount varies greatly in size, from modest elevations to colossal peaks. The most extreme examples are:

• Tallest Seamount: Mauna Kea, though considered an island at its summit, rises more than 33,500 feet (10,200 meters) from its base on the ocean floor, making it the tallest mountain in the world when measured from base to peak;
• Deepest Seamounts: Many are found in the Pacific's Mariana Trench region, where the ocean's depth exceeds 32,808 feet (10,000 meters);
• Longest Seamount: With its 3,900 miles (6,200 kilometers) from the Kamchatka peninsula to the southeast of the Island of Hawaii, the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain is probably the longest of its kind;

The Oases of the Deep

Seamounts are biodiversity hotspots, often described as "oases of life" in the deep sea.

Their steep slopes and elevated position create complex current patterns, which help concentrate nutrients and attract marine life.

These nutrient-rich waters support a wide variety of species, including:

• Plankton and Corals: Forming the base of the food chain, they provide habitat and food for other living organisms;
• Fish and Mammals: Many species, including commercially valuable ones like the orange roughy, are drawn to seamounts for feeding and breeding;
• Endemic Species: Some organisms are found only on specific seamounts, hence their ecological importance;

However, these ecosystems are vulnerable to human activities, particularly bottom trawling, a destructive fishing method that scrapes entire habitats from the seamount surface.

Therefore, conservation efforts are critical to protecting these unique ecosystems.

A Danger Lies Beneath

Seamounts are not without risks.

Uncharted seamounts pose navigation hazards; collisions, like the USS San Francisco submarine crash in 2005, highlight the dangers of these hidden giants.

Additionally, flank collapses - massive landslides caused by volcanic activity or structural instability - can trigger tsunamis.

These events, while rare, have the potential for devastating impacts on coastal regions.

Why Explore Seamounts?

Despite their importance, less than one percent of seamounts have been studied in detail. Exploration is vital for several reasons:

• Biodiversity Discovery: Each expedition uncovers new species and ecosystems, many of which are unique to these underwater mountains;
• Geological Insights: Studying seamounts helps scientists understand volcanic processes, plate tectonics, and Earth's history;
• Economic Potential: Seamounts are rich in minerals and support fisheries vital to global economies;

The ability to map and explore these remote features has been improved over time thanks to technological advances like autonomous submersibles and improved sonar systems.

The bathymetric study of the world's oceans can also help us understand the behavior of sea currents and ocean swells.

Still, the sheer number of seamounts presents a nearly endless challenge for oceanographers, researchers, and scientists.

Words by Luís MP | Founder of SurferToday.com

They're portrayed in popular culture as mirages that could save a lost soul in a sea of sand and dunes. An oasis might indeed look like a miracle born in the middle of the desert, but they're actually more than that common idea.

An oasis is a relatively limited or circumscribed fertile area in a desert or semi-desert region where water is available, enabling plants, animals, and sometimes human communities to thrive.

These unique and fascinating natural features provide vital resources in otherwise harsh and arid landscapes.

But how are they created and evolved, why are they important, and what do they tell us about Nature's health?

How Does an Oasis Form?

An oasis forms when groundwater or surface water becomes available in an otherwise dry area. There are several ways this happens:

1. Natural Springs: Groundwater rises to the surface through faults or cracks in the Earth's crust, creating pools of fresh water;
2. Aquifers: Underground water reserves, called aquifers, may be close enough to the surface that wells can tap into them;
3. Rainfall Collection: Some oases form in depressions or valleys where sporadic rainfall gathers, although this is rare in extreme deserts;
4. Human Intervention: In some cases, human ingenuity has created oases through irrigation systems or qanats - ancient tunnels that channel water from underground sources;

How Does an Oasis Grow?

Oases often start small but can expand over time. Their growth depends on water availability, human activity, and ecological factors.

One of them is vegetation spread.

Once plants like date palms take root, they create microclimates that retain moisture and shield the ground from direct sunlight, encouraging other plants to grow.

Then, there's obviously agricultural development.

People living near oases cultivate crops, dig deeper wells, and develop irrigation systems, which can further enhance the size and utility of the oasis.

Finally, there's natural expansion.

The oasis may naturally expand if water flow increases due to geological changes or seasonal variations.

How Does Water Stay?

The ability of an oasis to retain water is due to several factors:

• Geological Structures: Many oases are located in areas with impermeable rock layers that prevent water from seeping further into the ground;
• Vegetation Cover: Plants like date palms reduce evaporation by shading the soil, helping the oasis conserve its precious water;
• Human Management: Traditional water management systems, such as canals or barriers, help store and distribute water efficiently;

Without these natural and human interventions, water in an oasis would quickly evaporate or drain away.

Why Are They Important?

Oases play a critical role in ecosystems, economies, and cultures.

They are of ecological importance, as they provide habitats for diverse species, from birds and insects to unique desert plants.

As human settlements, oases have supported civilizations for thousands of years, offering water, food, and trade opportunities in arid regions.

They're also fantastic agricultural hubs in deserts, growing crops like dates, olives, and barley.

It is also important to mention their cultural significance, as many oases are steeped in history and serve as cultural landmarks, inspiring stories, religions, legends, and even Hollywood movies.

Famous Oases Around the World

Several oases stand out for their size, history, and significance. Here are some of the most visited examples:

• Wadi Bani Khalid (Oman): It is one of the world's most famous and picturesque oases with its striking turquoise pools, lush greenery, and dramatic landscapes;
• Siwa Oasis (Egypt): Known for its stunning salt lakes, palm groves, and ancient ruins, it has been a vital center since ancient times;
• Al-Ahsa Oasis (Saudi Arabia): The largest oasis in the world, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, famous for its extensive irrigation systems and lush greenery;
• Huacachina (Peru): A picturesque desert oasis surrounded by towering sand dunes, popular for tourism and sandboarding;
• Tafilalt (Morocco): Once an important stop on ancient trade routes, it is one of the largest oases in North Africa;
• Dakhla Oasis (Egypt): A historically significant site with archaeological remains from ancient civilizations;

Lessons We Learn

Oases teach us resilience and the importance of resource management.

They demonstrate how life can thrive in extreme conditions through adaptation, innovation, and care.

A bit like a cactus harnesses humidity from the air and stores it for months.

For humans, they highlight the value of sustainable water use and living in harmony with the environment.

Most Critical Threats

Despite their resistance, oases face numerous threats.

Climate change is certainly the most relevant, as rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall can deplete water sources.

Another problem is the over-extraction of water due to the fact that intensive agriculture and population growth can drain aquifers faster than they can replenish.

Desertification is also a burden because human activity and environmental factors lead to the expansion of deserts, thus engulfing oases.

Pollution caused by industrial activities and poor waste management also threaten the purity of oasis water.

Lastly, it's critical to mention tourism pressure.

It is often witnessed that very touristic oases face overcrowding, litter, and unsustainable tourism practices.

Words by Luís MP | Founder of SurferToday.com

In the supermarket, when buying clothes, choosing our means of transportation, or even picking toothpaste off the shelf - our daily lives are filled with small choices, and we all stand to gain if these choices are more conscious.

Responsible consumption is a way of consuming that takes into account both environmental and social impacts throughout a product's life cycle.

It involves selecting goods and services that, among other factors, avoid excessive consumption of natural resources in their production, ensure skilled employment for workers, and can be reused or recycled.

There are, therefore, countless opportunities for us to do more and do better.

With these tips we're sharing here, we believe your daily life can become more conscious and sustainable.

You don't need to do everything, and certainly not all at once.

Choose one area, the one that's easiest for you to put into practice, and start there. Take it slow and with no judgment.

1. In the Kitchen

Did you know that, according to the National Institute of Statistics, Portugal is the fourth country in the European Union that wastes the most food per person?

It's nearly 200 kilos per person every year.

And if you think this waste happens only in restaurants and supermarkets, you're mistaken.

Forty percent of food waste occurs at home, so there's no sidestepping responsibility.

What's needed is a change in habits, and here are some of the main ones:

Buy only what you need

Make a list before leaving the house after checking the fridge and pantry. This way, you avoid bringing home what you don't need and what you may still have in stock.

Plan your meals

If you know what you're going to cook, you can buy exactly what you need for each day.

And if you go to stores that sell in bulk, even better, as you can avoid buying large amounts of something you won't use fully.

Be mindful of expiration dates

"Best before" refers to the date until which the food retains specific qualities, according to the Portuguese Association of Distribution Companies.

That means the food can still be consumed after this date if stored properly. If you're still unsure, check by appearance and smell.

Pasta, legumes, and spices, for instance, can be used months after their expiration date without losing quality.

"Use by," according to the same association, indicates a date after which the food should no longer be consumed.

This typically applies to yogurt, for example. Even then, nothing beats opening and smelling it.

Make the most of your food

Wash vegetables thoroughly and use them whole, especially if they're organic.

Carrots, potatoes, pumpkins - no need to peel, particularly if you're making a soup or roast.

If you prefer to peel them, keep the peels in a container in the freezer and keep adding to it whenever you have similar scraps.

When you've collected enough, boil them with water and salt to make a delicious vegetable broth.

2. In Hygiene and Cleaning

Choose detergents carefully

Opt for biodegradable cleaning products that don't harm the environment. Whenever possible, buy in bulk to avoid extra packaging.

Turn off the tap

Whether brushing your teeth, showering, shaving, or washing dishes, use water sparingly. A dripping tap, releasing a drop every five seconds, can waste over 20 liters of water in a day.

Avoid plastic

For soap, shampoo, or shower gel, choose solid products that last longer and often come in non-plastic packaging.

You can even find toothpaste in alternative formats, made with ingredients that are safe for health and the planet.

3. In Mobility

Choose the bicycle

Walking or cycling is, without a doubt, the most eco-friendly way to get around.

Plan your routes to find those you can do without a car, and take advantage of bicycle-sharing systems now available in many cities across the country.

Opt for proximity

Try to make sure the places you frequent most are close to home.

This could be the supermarket, the gym, or any other activities you do regularly. Work can also require less commuting if your employer supports and encourages remote work.

Public transportation, always

If walking or cycling isn't an option, choose public transportation.

Not only do you avoid adding another car to the road, but you can also often reach your destination faster, with no worries about traffic or parking.

Fast Fashion: Buying to Be in Style

The fashion industry is one of the largest and most polluting industries globally, growing at a staggering pace.

Fast fashion is a production and consumption model where textile products are made, consumed, and discarded constantly and rapidly.

It's based on producing as much clothing as possible, as quickly as possible, and at the lowest possible cost.

Clothes are mass-produced and inspired by high-end brands, but they are of much lower quality, resulting in lower prices.

Small collections are mass-produced, quickly followed by new collections, which ensures pieces sell fast.

This cycle promotes excessive consumption and exploitative labor in poor conditions and causes catastrophic damage to the environment and health.

Why Is It Unsustainable?

• Increased Carbon Levels: Clothing production generates over 400 percent more carbon emissions per item annually than garments worn 50 times and kept for a full year. Coal, gas, and oil are used to produce synthetic fabrics, contributing to carbon emissions and toxic gases in the atmosphere. Polyester, one of today's most widely used fibers, takes about 200 years to decompose and is derived from fossil fuels;
• Water Pollution: Fabrics contain low-quality dyes, hazardous colorants, toxic chemicals, heavy metal-based products, and microplastics that are released through wear and washing. These often end up in wastewater systems and make their way into the ocean, where they continue to release harmful residues into the air and water until fully decomposed;
• Excessive Water Consumption: The fashion industry uses an estimated 93 billion cubic meters of water annually. For instance, around 3,000 liters of water are required to produce just one cotton T-shirt;
• Increased Transportation Usage: Many brands operate online, resulting in individual deliveries. For example, annual emissions from postal services in the United States are roughly equivalent to the yearly greenhouse gas emissions of 7 million cars;
• Minimal Wear of Clothing: With the pressure to follow fashion trends, these clothes tend to be disposable, worn only a few times before being discarded. An item that used to be worn about 50 times is now only worn an average of five times before it's tossed out;
• Waste from Poor Quality: These clothes quickly lose color and wear out due to their low quality, generating waste of materials and resources. Their poor quality also means they are often unfit for recycling;
• Fake Greenwashing: Many brands propose initiatives to collect used items in stores to be recycled and turned into new textiles. However, GPS tracking by NGOs has revealed that only about 20 percent of these items are recycled, with the remaining 80 percent ending up in landfills, mostly in Africa, or incinerated;
• Exploitation of Slave Labor: Production largely takes place in countries with limited or no human rights protections. To produce on a mass scale, quickly and cheaply, companies enforce long working hours, low wages, child labor, gender inequality, and even physical abuse;
• Unsafe Manufacturing Locations: Production sites frequently change to find cheaper labor and reduce costs, often in Asian countries. These locations tend to lack safety standards, basic conditions, and proper work environments;
• Compromised Health: Exposure to toxic substances and metals like lead can cause serious health issues for both the producers and the consumers of these clothes;

Words by Marta Cerqueira | Journalist, Co-Founder of Peggada, and Contributing Writer at "O Trevo" Magazine

Côme Girardot set a new death diving world record after jumping from a height of 44.3 meters (145.34 feet) at the La Cimbarra waterfall in central Spain.

The 22-year-old Frenchman jumped from the 44-meter-high cliff of the La Cimbarrilla waterfall near the central Spanish town of Aldeaquemada in heavy wind conditions.

After a three-second "flight," Girardot dove into the water with both hands and feet at a speed of 106 kilometers per hour.

"The hardest thing is always overcoming the mental barrier at the start," said Girardot.

"In the jump, the airtime was way bigger than I expected, and I experienced my biggest adrenaline rush ever!"

The new death diving world record holder from Bordeaux got help from a dozen of his fellow competitors on the Døds Diving World Tour.

They took care of the preparation stages and made sure the attempt was performed in a safe manner.

"We are a big group of friends," said Ken Stornes from Norway and Lucien Charlon from Switzerland, who were on duty as lifeguards.

Stornes set the world record at 40.5 meters (132.87 feet) in December 2023, and Charlon improved it to 41.7 meters (136.81 feet) in August 2024.

Døds Diving Was Born in Norway

Døds diving, meaning "death" in Norwegian, was invented in Norway by Erling Bruno Hovden in 1969 and is a high diving discipline.

It differs from the high diving variant in which the feet usually hit the water surface first because hands and feet are immersed simultaneously.

Death diving has two main divisions: classic and freestyle.

In classic døds diving, competitors jump off a platform and spread their arms and legs wide, flying horizontally toward the water without doing any flips or rotations.

Right before hitting the water, they tuck into a curled position (like a fetal position) to reduce the impact and avoid injury.

They usually land with their feet and hands or knees and elbows hitting the water first.

The dive is judged based on factors like speed, time spent in the air, how complex the dive is, how long they stay in the extended pose before tucking, how well they close their dive, and the size of the splash they make when hitting the water.

In freestyle, during the jump, the maneuvers in døds diving are more similar to tricks performed in snowboarding or skateboarding, in contrast to high diving, whose difficulties are more comparable to those in gymnastics.

Words by Luís MP | Founder of SurferToday.com

The 2024 Atlantic hurricane season is well underway, but there's a storm in particular threatening the US, Canadian and European coastlines.

Hurricane Kirk, a powerful Category 3 storm, is currently moving through the Atlantic Ocean with sustained winds of 120 miles per hour (195 kilometers per hour).

Although it was expected to weaken gradually starting last weekend, the US National Hurricane Center (NHC) warns that the hurricane will remain large and pose significant risks, particularly through the dangerous surf and rip current conditions it will generate along various coastlines.

The NHC has issued advisories stating that waves from Kirk could create life-threatening surf conditions along the US East Coast, eastern Canada, Bermuda, the Greater Antilles, and the Bahamas.

These large swells were already affecting parts of the Leeward Islands, Bermuda, and the Greater Antilles by Saturday and were expected to reach the US East Coast, Atlantic Canada, and the Bahamas later in the weekend.

But Florida has more reasons to worry. Hurricane Milton reached Category 5 and is expected to cause serious damage to the Floridian coastal regions.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) stated that "Milton is an extremely dangerous, life-threatening storm."

"Leave now if you are in an evacuation zone; there will not be time to leave on Wednesday."

Meanwhile, Kirk is a fast-moving storm, and the Azores are projected to be impacted by these swells by Monday.

Meteorologists and weather forecasters believe that Kirk is not expected to make direct landfall.

Nevertheless, its path will still lead to significant meteorological impacts and potentially problematic consequences near the shore.

A red alert was issued for the Azorean western island group.

As the storm continues to move northwest, then northeast, over cooler waters, it is likely to transition into a post-tropical storm as it approaches Europe.

The transformation will reduce its strength as a hurricane but could still lead to severe weather events, especially in Portugal and other parts of Europe.

Impacts in Europe

As Kirk approaches mainland Portugal early this week, it will likely have downgraded to a strong extratropical storm.

Despite losing its tropical hurricane characteristics, Kirk could still bring intense rainfall, high winds, and dangerous maritime conditions to northern and central Portugal, and also Spain's Galicia region.

Regions like Minho, Douro Litoral, and Alto Tâmega may experience wind gusts exceeding 70 miles per hour (110 kilometers per hour), while heavy rainfall, up to 80 mm in 24 hours, could fall in mountainous areas of northern Portugal, particularly in the districts of Viana do Castelo, Braga, and Vila Real.

Additionally, rough seas will affect the Portuguese coast, with wave heights expected to reach between 16 and 50 feet (5 and 15 meters) or more, particularly along the northern and central coast.

Nazaré could see the first big swell of the 2024/2025 season reaching Praia do Norte's underwater canyon.

These adverse weather conditions may continue as the storm impacts other parts of Europe, especially as it moves toward the coast of France and the Bay of Biscay.

High-surf warnings have been issued.

Wider Atlantic Hurricane Activity

The Atlantic hurricane season remains active, with other storms also posing threats.

Tropical Storm Milton, which formed in the Gulf of Mexico, is expected to strengthen into a hurricane and bring potential life-threatening impacts to Florida's west coast.

Meanwhile, Hurricane Leslie, a Category 1 storm in the eastern Atlantic, is weakening but remains under observation.

The Atlantic hurricane season officially runs from June 1 to November 30, with peak activity usually occurring from mid-August to mid-October.

Kirk, Milton, and Leslie are among the latest in a series of significant storms during a highly active period, which follows the catastrophic damage caused by Hurricane Helene in the southeastern US last week.

Helene left a tragic death toll and widespread destruction, with President Biden overseeing relief efforts, promising federal support for recovery in states like Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas.

Words by Luís MP | Founder of SurferToday.com

The way we think about waves is changing.

A joint research from the University of Oxford, the University of Manchester, the University of Edinburgh, and University College Dublin produced some surprising conclusions about ocean waves.

Three-dimensional (3D) waves form when ocean waves spread out in multiple directions rather than just moving unidirectionally.

The phenomenon is commonly known as "cross sea" or "square waves," where different wave systems meet and overlap.

It occurs, for instance, when the wind shifts direction or during extreme weather events like hurricanes, causing waves to intersect and create complex, unpredictable patterns on the ocean's surface.

Scientists concluded these 3D can be much steeper and break for much longer than previously thought.

Advances in three-dimensional modeling allowed researchers to produce stunningly accurate depictions of a wave's surface structure.

The findings published in Nature revealed that wave heights can potentially reach limits never previously considered.

Researchers, led by M. L. McAllister, looked at the directional spreading of waves - a special circular tank called FloWave was built for simulations - which influences how wave energy is distributed and what directional patterns they follow after impact.

Capturing the tank waves in three dimensions led to clear pictures of ocean energy exchange and wave interaction. 

Three-dimensional modeling gave the team a glimpse of the forces affecting the waves beneath the waterline.

The artificial ocean waves allowed the researchers "to examine the full range of 3D wave-breaking phenomena and capture the physical mechanisms of wave breaking."

It also brought them to their big finding: previous assumptions about ocean waves were way off. 

Wave Forecasting Revolution

According to the study titled "Three-dimensional wave breaking," ocean waves can be much larger and steeper and act in ways that were not thought possible.

Waves can be "80 percent steeper than at breaking onset and four times steeper than equivalent two-dimensional waves at their breaking onset," McAllister said.

The research has important applications for the future of wave forecasting.

The models give us a better understanding of how ocean waves form, break, and interact.

They inform us how energy dissipation affects their direction. 

Scientists also believe this new research could change how we design and construct ocean infrastructure, such as offshore windmills and oil rigs.

Both designs are heavily influenced by the highly directional and oftentimes unpredictable ocean waves that apply significant stress to the structures. 

"Unlike in 2D, waves can exceed the onset steepness at which wave breaking first occurs," McAllister said.

"This has significant implications for understanding extreme-wave formation, which in turn has implications for the design of offshore structures, as wave breaking typically curtails crest-height exceedance probability distributions."

Reliable ocean infrastructure and safe ocean travel rely on our ability to accurately predict ocean wave conditions.

Edinburgh's technology now allows us to better predict how waves form, break, and travel so that we can adapt how we interact with the seas. 

A more predictable ocean may not be as seductive to those working and playing there, but it will surely be safer.

Words by Max Van Rees

Rafael Fernández Caballero is the 2024 Ocean Photographer of the Year.

The Spanish lensman captured a once-in-a-lifetime picture that made headlines across the world: a Bryde's whale emerging from the deep, mouth wide open, just moments before taking a bite from a bait ball.

The spectacular, striking image taken during the Mexican sardine run in Baja California Sur won him the prestigious trophy awarded by Oceanographic Magazine.

Caballero is known for his storytelling through photography.

He described the winning shot as "the most special - and craziest - moment" of his life.

The whale's dramatic appearance from the depths, surrounded by a lively scene of colorful dorados, sea lions, and swirling sardines, was a surreal and unforgettable sight.

"The entire scene was incredible, and the Pacific waters were calm, making it a perfect opportunity to capture this once-in-a-lifetime moment," he recounted.

Having visited the Mexican sardine run for years, Caballero had always hoped to witness a whale feeding on a bait ball - a predation event he considers to be one of the most spectacular in the ocean.

On that day, the stars aligned, and he was in the right place at the right time.

"My friend Mekan, another photographer, was right behind me but missed the shot, yet his happiness for me made the moment even more special," added Caballero.

But the 30-year-old was definitely not expecting to win the 2024 Ocean Photographer of the Year.

"It's a dream come true… I had to re-read the message several times to make sure it was real," he admitted.

The recognition, however, fuels his mission even more: to showcase the beauty of the ocean and inspire others to protect it.

Diving Since the Age of 7

Caballero's journey into the world of underwater photography was a natural progression from his childhood love for the ocean.

Raised by a father who was a professional submarine photographer, Caballero was drawn to the sea from a young age.

His first dive at age seven, with a 7-litre scuba tank perfectly sized for him, ignited a lifelong bond with the underwater world.

Years of diving without a camera gave him an intimate understanding of marine life, but eventually, the urge to capture those moments became too strong to resist.

Inspired by his father's work, Caballero picked up a camera and never looked back.

Rafael is obsessed with telling stories through his still pictures, freezing the ocean's most extraordinary and often unseen moments.

"The sea is filled with unique stories, and I aim to present these in a way that leaves a strong impact," the Madrid-born explained.

Caballero will continue to bring the ocean's hidden mysteries to light and make sure he can play his part in promoting a deeper connection between people and the waterworld.

"You need to know something in order to love and protect it," concluded Rafael Fernández Caballero.

The 2024 edition of Ocean Photographer of the Year also highlighted two additional pictures among 15,000 entries.

The second place went to Jade Hoksbergen for the shot of a northern gannet diving into the water to catch its prey in the Isle of Noss, Shetland Islands.

The third place went to Thien Nguyen for a drone picture of a trail of smoke coming up from a fishing boat's chimney in Hon Yen, Vietnam, perfectly aligned with the shape of the green nets moving under the surface.

Words by Luís MP | Founder of SurferToday.com

On September 16, 2023, scientists around the world detected a mysterious seismic signal that spread across the entire planet. It lasted for nine consecutive days.

The peak of a 3,930-foot (1.2-kilometer) high mountain in eastern Greenland held the answer.

Around 25 million cubic meters of ice, enough to fill 10,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools, crashed into the Dickson Fjord.

The impact unleashed a 650-foot (200-meter) high megatsunami wave, comparable to a 50-story building, roughly the same height as the Washington Tower in Washington, D.C.

The giant wave sped across the water, eventually reaching Ella Island, located 44 miles (70 kilometers) away off the coast, where it arrived at a height of 197 feet (60 meters).

It destroyed a research base there, fortunately abandoned at the time, causing damages worth 220,000 dollars.

The rest of the wave, about seven meters high, became trapped within the narrow, winding, and uninhabited 6.2-mile (10-kilometer) long fjord.

The wave began oscillating back and forth every 90 seconds, coinciding with the vibration recordings that traveled through the Earth's crust, producing a seismic signal of 10.88 millihertz (mHz).

This rhythmic sloshing, known as a seiche, continued its destructive path, obliterating parts of the cultural and archaeological heritage of the fjord system until it eventually diminished to just a few inches.

A Potential Catastrophe

The Dickson Fjord lies on a popular tourist cruise route, but fortunately, there were no ships nearby on September 16.

Experts agree that encountering a tsunami of that magnitude would have been catastrophic.

According to researchers who released the study and conclusions in the journal Science, the landslide was triggered by the glacier at the mountain's base losing ice, making it unable to support the rock wall above it.

Scientists are certain that similar events will happen again. In fact, it has happened before.

In 2017, a landslide in western Greenland's Karrat Fjord triggered a tsunami that flooded the village of Nuugaatsiaq, destroying 11 homes and killing four people.

"As climate change continues to melt the Earth's polar regions, the number of large-scale landslides involving earth, rock, and ice that generate destructive events will multiply," says seismologist Alice Gabriel from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego (UCS).

"This is the first landslide and tsunami observed in eastern Greenland, which shows that climate change is already having significant impacts there," says Dr. Kristian Svennevig from the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS).

The mysterious seismic signal that triggered the tsunami was detected by seismometers worldwide, from the Arctic to Antarctica.

Its appearance was entirely different from the usual seismic noises and whistles, as it contained a single vibration frequency, like a monotone hum.

Unidentified Seismic Object

When the study's authors first discovered the signal, they labeled it an unidentified seismic object (USO).

It was puzzling for several reasons.

First, it didn't resemble the chaotic scribbles produced by earthquakes on seismographs; instead, it oscillated with 92-second intervals between peaks, which was too slow for humans to perceive.

Second, it remained strong for several days, whereas most seismic events weaken quickly.

The global scientific community began debating the possible causes of these strange seismic waves through email exchanges.

"When we embarked on this scientific adventure, everyone was baffled, and nobody had the slightest idea what was causing this signal. All we knew was that it was somehow related to the landslide," says Dr. Kristian Svennevig of GEUS.

Finally, they linked it to a massive landslide in a remote fjord in Greenland that had occurred on September 16, around the time the seismic signal was first detected.

A Lot of Work Ahead

It was the first time water movement had been recorded in the form of vibrations traveling through the Earth's crust and circulating the globe for several days.

Researchers formed a unique multidisciplinary group that involved 68 scientists from 40 institutions in 15 countries, combining seismic and infrasound data, field measurements, terrestrial and satellite images, and tsunami wave simulations.

Danish military images, taken when they sailed to the fjord a few days after the event to inspect the collapsed mountain face and glacier front, also helped reveal the dramatic scars left by the tsunami.

"This unique tsunami challenged the classic numerical models we previously used, as they simulated only a few hours of propagation," notes Anne Mangeney from Université Paris Cité and the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris.

"We had to achieve an unprecedented numerical resolution to capture the entire event from Greenland."

The findings, researchers conclude, demonstrate the complex and cascading risks posed by climate change in polar regions.

It is now more important than ever to characterize and monitor regions once considered stable to provide early warning of these massive events.

"This shows that there are things we still don't understand and haven't seen before," concludes Carl Ebeling from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego (UCS).

The Bermuda Triangle is one of the most widespread legends involving haunted places or doomed regions where sailors and pilots lost their lives. So, what is truth, and what is myth? Where do fear and mystery fit in this North Atlantic area?

If you're traveling in a commercial airplane and you're aware that you'll be flying over a zone that you've once heard or read could be cursed, which thoughts go through your mind?

Can even the most rational individual despise the stories of death and fear surrounding the Bermuda Triangle?

Maybe.

But the stories around this "urban legend" are too many to be ignored and have been stacking up for ages.

Let's get things straight and separate the myths from the truths.

What is the Bermuda Triangle?

The Bermuda Triangle is an imaginary region in the southwestern part of the North Atlantic Ocean, roughly bounded by Miami, Puerto Rico, and Bermuda.

The loosely defined area occupies around 450 thousand square miles (1.1 million square kilometers).

The region, mostly oceanic, has been the stage of several mysterious accidents and tragedies.

The first reports of unusual events date back to the late 15th century.

Planes have been reported missing, and rescue missions attempting to search the area are said to have vanished.

Similarly, ships have been found abandoned without any obvious explanation; others disappeared without sending distress signals and were never heard from again.

Through time, multiple theories have emerged, some belonging to the paranormal and supernatural category and others sustained in scientific, statistical, geophysical, and weather facts.

Although the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) stated, "There is no evidence that mysterious disappearances occur with any greater frequency in the Bermuda Triangle than in any other large, well-traveled area of the ocean," the region's notorious reputation has never been swept from pop culture.

Officially, the triangular-shaped zone does not exist and is not part of any world map or formal geographical identification.

The First Reference

The first reference to the Bermuda Triangle appeared in the February 1964 issue of Argosy magazine.

The article penned by Vincent Gaddis is titled "The Deadly Bermuda Triangle."

It describes a series of unexplained events with vessels and planes and raises the question: "What is there about this particular slice of the world that has destroyed hundreds of ships and planes without a trace?"

Since then, the myth of the Bermuda Triangle has fueled pop culture and mystic conjectures, and the region gained new alternative names such as the Twilight Zone, Limbo of the Lost, Hoodoo Sea, or the Devil's Triangle.

Charles Berlitz's 1974 book "The Bermuda Triangle" helped to spread the idea that the region is a mysterious zone where ships and planes frequently vanish.

Berlitz explored various explanations for the alleged disappearances, including the theory suggests that the Bermuda Triangle is linked to the remnants of the lost underwater city of Atlantis, with its destruction possibly causing the unusual phenomena in the area.

The book was a huge success, with around 20 million copies sold in over 30 languages.

The enchanted virtual island quickly gave birth to multiple conspiracy theories involving sorcery, malfunctioning compasses, alien abduction, wormholes, time warps, etc.

Scientific Explanations

Scientists, oceanographers, military authorities, and governmental organizations have been stressing the statistical irrelevancy of these incidents compared to other regions.

They attribute the sometimes tragic events to the following causes:

• Human error;
• Rogue waves;
• Heavy traffic;
• Agonic line;
• Hurricanes and tropical storms;
• White squalls;
• Gulf Stream currents;
• Milwaukee Deep;
• Reefs and shallow waters;
• Methane gas deposits;
• Waterspouts;

Entities like NOAA, NASA, the US Coast Guard, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the University of Southampton, and The Arctic University of Norway have been trying to debunk the myth and push the false narratives.

Poor navigation skills and foul weather are the most cited causes of mysterious disappearances and tragic events in the area.

However, the stories of unexplained plane crashes and shipwrecks are too powerful and appealing for the collective imagination to ignore.

Famous Incidents

Over the past 500 years, more than 50 ships and 20 airplanes have mysteriously disappeared in the Bermuda Triangle, often leaving no trace- no debris, bodies, or evidence.

During his first voyage to the New World (1492–1493), Christopher Columbus passed through the area.

In his logbook, the navigator recorded unusual events, including a burst of fire falling into the sea and mysterious lights appearing in the distance.

He also reported that his compass behaved erratically.

The journey took him through the Sargasso Sea, known for its calm, windless waters and dense seaweed, where sailors often feared being stranded.

Also, William Shakespeare's "The Tempest," a play written between 1610 and 1611, describes a story of shipwreck and sorcery in what is believed to be the Bermuda Triangle.

Here are some of the most bizarre incidents in the infamous North Atlantic region:

Ellen Austin (1881)

According to legend, the 210-foot-long Ellen Austin, sailing from Liverpool to New York, encountered an abandoned "ghost ship" in the Bermuda Triangle.

The crew of the Ellen Austin attempted to take control of the mysterious ship, but a storm separated the two vessels.

When they reunited, the crew that had boarded the ghost ship had disappeared.

After a second attempt to board it, a dense fog rolled in, and when it cleared, the ghost ship had vanished entirely.

Joshua Slocum (1895)

Joshua Slocum, the first person to sail solo around the world, mysteriously disappeared while sailing from Martha's Vineyard to South America.

Despite his extensive sailing experience, Slocum was never seen again.

His vanishing has been linked to the mysteries of the Bermuda Triangle, though no evidence was ever found.

USS Cyclops (1918)

The USS Cyclops, a large Navy fuel ship carrying 309 crew members, disappeared while traveling from the Caribbean to Baltimore.

The ship, which had no reported issues and was equipped with distress equipment, sent no signals for help before vanishing.

Despite extensive searches, no wreckage or explanation was ever found, and the disappearance remains one of the Navy's greatest mysteries.

"There has been no more baffling mystery in the annals of the Navy than the disappearance last March of the USS Cyclops," Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels wrote in 1919.

USS Proteus and USS Nereus (1941)

In 1941, the Navy cargo ship USS Proteus disappeared in the Bermuda Triangle with 58 crew members while transporting ore from St. Thomas to the US East Coast.

A month later, its sister ship, USS Nereus, vanished along the same route with 61 people aboard.

Neither ship was ever recovered, and the cause of their disappearances remains unknown.

Flight 19 (1945)

Five TBM Avenger bombers, known as Flight 19, took off from a base in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, on a routine training exercise.

However, due to a malfunctioning compass and navigational errors, the planes became lost.

As they flew further into the Bermuda Triangle, radio contact was lost, and none of the aircraft were ever found.

The Navy described the incident as if the planes had "flown to Mars."

DC-3 Flight (1948)

A DC-3 commercial aircraft with 29 passengers and two crew members disappeared 50 miles before reaching Miami.

The pilot, Robert Lindquist, had radioed for landing instructions, but communication suddenly ceased, and the plane vanished without a trace.

Star Tiger (1948)

The British Avro Tudor plane "Star Tiger" vanished in the Bermuda Triangle with 25 passengers and six crew members on board.

The aircraft was never recovered, and the official investigation concluded that its fate would remain an enigma.

Star Ariel (1949)

The G-AGRE plane "Star Ariel" disappeared while flying from Bermuda to Jamaica.

The aircraft lost communication after switching frequencies over the Bermuda Triangle.

Despite clear weather, the plane and its occupants were never found.

SS Marine Sulphur Queen (1963)

The SS Marine Sulphur Queen, a tanker ship carrying molten sulfur and 39 crew members, disappeared off the coast of Florida.

After a thorough search, only small fragments of debris and life preservers were found, but the ship and its crew were never recovered.

Sylvia L. Ossa (1967)

The 590-foot cargo ship Sylvia L. Ossa, with 37 crew members aboard, vanished in the Bermuda Triangle.

Some debris, such as a lifeboat and life preservers, were recovered, but the ship itself was never located.

Irving Rivers (1978)

Irving Rivers, an experienced pilot, disappeared while flying solo to St. Thomas.

Just one mile from his destination, his signal lights vanished from radar, and despite searches, no trace of his plane was ever found.

Cessna Plane (1984)

A Cessna aircraft flying from Fort Lauderdale to the Bahamas disappeared from radar without issuing any distress calls.

Witnesses claimed to have seen the plane descend into the ocean, but no wreckage was ever spotted.

SS Cotopaxi (1925, Found in 2020)

The SS Cotopaxi disappeared in 1925 while en route to Havana, fueling speculation of a Bermuda Triangle mystery.

However, the wreckage of the ship was found off the coast of Florida in 2020, debunking many of the myths surrounding its fate.

Words by Luís MP | Founder of SurferToday.com

In November 2023, The New Yorker magazine put the shoreline of Pacifica, California, on the national map. The article described the pros and cons of seawalls in coping with sea level rise.

It said that the oldest known seawall was built about 7,000 years ago. You can still see it if you have a snorkel.

Archeologists concluded that the discovery was "ominously relevant."

Seventy-two percent of California's 1,100-mile coastline consists of actively eroding sea cliffs.

We believe that Pacifica's current effort to cope with the rising sea level offers a great opportunity to pioneer a better, and potentially less expensive, way to coexist with the 70 percent of our planet, which is the ocean.

About ten years ago, the prestigious Oxford University in England created a whole new department dedicated to getting the government to stop making the same mistakes.

We offer these ideas, none of them truly new, to the City of Pacifica, the Federal Government, and all the appropriate agencies and authorities.

We believe that we can widen the beach, reduce wave damage, and slow down shoreline erosion.

We also think we can create fish habitat and even help kelp.

California Is Under Pressure

At the same time, our not-so-hidden agenda is to shape a new contest-quality surfing wave that will contribute to the local economy and be enjoyed by some of the 2.8 million California surfers.

Surveys have repeatedly shown that beaches are by far the most popular US tourist destination.

There are about 3.4 billion visits to US beaches annually. This is an enormous number of visits.

It's more than 225 percent times greater than the combined annual attendance at all National Park properties from the Washington Monument to the Grand Canyon, state parks, all amusement-park attractions such as Disney World, all professional and collegiate football, basketball, and baseball games, cruises, and events of the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR).

Beach tourists spend $240 billion annually, more than the value of all crops grown in America or oil exported by Saudi Arabia.

They generate an economic output of $520 billion.

If a community wants to maximize its beach economy, it needs to also support the infrastructure needed to accommodate all that additional usage.

We are advocating the construction of a multipurpose barrier reef that, when combined with initial sand nourishment, will help retain that sand and achieve the above-mentioned benefits and locally delay the need to consider more impactful strategies like managed retreat.

California's Ocean Protection Council 2024 annual report concluded, "California must take bold and swift action to protect nature and coastal communities from the impacts of sea level rise."

We agree. Bold, swift action is exactly what we are proposing.

Who Are We?

Bob Battalio

Bob Battalio is a former chief engineer, vice president, and coastal zone engineering and management team leader at Environmental Science Associates (ESA).

He served as president of the California Shore and Beach Preservation Association and is a Joe Johnson Outstanding Service Award recipient (2023).

Battalio is also a member of the Surfrider Foundation and a former president of the California Marine Parks and Harbors Association.

He has resided in Pacifica for 35 years.

Robert Caughlan

Rob "Birdlegs" Caughlan is a former White House advisor for President Jimmy Carter and special assistant to the US Environmental Protection Agency administrator.

He was the first president of the Surfrider Foundation and field representative for Assemblyman Leo Ryan.

Caughlan was Dianne Feinstein's first campaign writer.

George Domurat

George Domurat is a board commissioner of San Mateo County Harbor District, a former planning commissioner of the City of Pacifica, and a former California Shore and Beach Preservation Association president.

He served as vice president of the American Shore and Beach Preservation Association.

Domurat retired from the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) after 42 years in oceanography, coastal engineering, coastal planning, port and harbor engineering, and dredge material management.

He has been living in Pacifica for 43 years.

Brian Gerrity

Brian Gerrity is a project manager overseeing coastal and maritime development projects and a coastal management doctoral candidate.

Tom Kendall

Tom Kendall is a former director of the California Shore and Beach Preservation Association and a former American Shore and Beach Preservation Association treasurer.

He was named American Society of Civil Engineers Government Engineer of the Year in 2009 and received the US Army Corps of Engineers Coastal Working Group "Long Wave" Award in 2023.

He has lived in Pacifica for 35 years.

Introduction

Coastal regions around the world face significant challenges due to rising sea levels, increased storm intensity, and coastal erosion.

Traditional methods of coastal protection, such as seawalls and breakwaters, often come with environmental drawbacks and can be costly to maintain.

As a result, there is growing interest in nature-based solutions that not only protect coastlines but also enhance the local ecosystem and provide recreational opportunities.

One such innovative approach is the implementation of multi-purpose reefs with beach nourishment, commonly referred to as the Reef + Sand concept.

What Are Multi-Purpose Reefs?

Multi-purpose reefs are man-made underwater structures designed to mimic the functions of natural reefs.

They are installed on the seabed and serve several purposes:

• Wave Dissipation: By breaking and dissipating waves offshore, these reefs reduce the energy reaching the shore, thereby protecting coastal areas from erosion and storm damage;
• Sand Retention: The presence of the reef reduces the movement of sand away from the shore, helping to maintain or widen beaches;
• Ecological Enhancement: The reefs can be constructed with materials that support marine life, such as kelp forests, providing a habitat for a variety of marine species;
• Recreational Benefits: The altered wave patterns can create opportunities for recreational activities like surfing, which can boost local tourism;

The Reef + Sand Concept

The Reef + Sand concept integrates the construction of these artificial reefs with strategic beach nourishment.

Beach nourishment involves adding sand to the shoreline to counteract erosion and maintain beach width.

When combined with multi-purpose reefs, this method not only addresses immediate erosion concerns but also creates a more stable and sustainable shoreline over the long term.

How It Works

The artificial reef is constructed offshore, where it alters wave patterns in a way that encourages sand accumulation on the beach behind it.

This process creates a "sand-retention structure," effectively trapping sand that would otherwise be lost to deeper waters.

However, to maximize the effectiveness of this system, the beach is often pre-filled with additional sand.

And this is where the beach nourishment component comes into play.

The pre-filled sand helps to establish a new equilibrium shoreline, reducing the frequency and volume of future nourishment efforts.

The integration of reef construction with beach nourishment creates a more resilient coastal environment, offering protection from both chronic erosion and extreme weather events.

The Benefits

1. Coastal Protection

The primary benefit of the Reef + Sand approach is enhanced coastal protection.

By dissipating wave energy offshore, these reefs reduce the impact of storms on coastal infrastructure and communities.

The sand-retention effect further stabilizes the shoreline, which can complement or even reduce the need for other forms of shore protection and help minimize their associated impacts.

2. Recreational and Economic Benefits

The altered wave patterns created by the reef can enhance recreational opportunities, particularly for surfing.

Popular surf spots can boost local tourism, contributing to the economy.

Additionally, wider and more stable beaches attract more visitors, further supporting local businesses and real estate values.

3. Environmental and Ecological Advantages

Unlike traditional coastal defense structures, multi-purpose reefs can enhance local ecosystems.

The use of natural materials like quarried rock in reef construction creates habitats for marine flora and fauna.

For instance, kelp forests can anchor to the reef, providing food and shelter for various marine species.

The ecological enhancement is particularly important in areas like California, where marine protected areas (MPAs) are crucial for preserving biodiversity.

Case Studies and Examples

Over the past 25 years, several multi-purpose reef projects have been implemented worldwide, with varying degrees of success.

Notable examples include:

• Narrowneck Reef (Australia): Constructed in 2000 using sand-filled geotextile bags. Successfully increased beach width and improved conditions for surfing and recreational fishing;
• Pratte's Reef (California): Built in 2001 as an experimental surf reef but later removed due to deterioration. Highlighted the challenges of constructing durable reefs in high-energy environments;
• Stanley's Reef (aka Oil Piers Reef): The USACE funded the design of a multi-purpose reef to widen a beach in Ventura and potentially restore an associated surfing spot called "Oil Piers" and "Stanley's." The project design was completed, but funding was lost before permitting was completed, and it was not constructed;

Challenges and Uncertainties

While the potential benefits of multi-purpose reefs with beach nourishment are significant, several uncertainties and challenges must be addressed:

• Construction Costs: The initial cost of constructing these reefs can be high, particularly when using durable materials like quarried rock;
• Environmental Impact Assessments: The potential ecological impacts of reef construction need thorough evaluation, particularly concerning how these structures affect local sand transport and marine habitats;
• Adaptation to Climate Change: As sea levels rise and storm patterns change, the effectiveness of these reefs must be continuously monitored and potentially adapted;
• Regulatory and Permitting Challenges: The approval process for constructing artificial reefs can be complex, involving multiple environmental and governmental agencies;

The Way Forward

Given the growing threats to coastal regions from climate change, the development and implementation of nature-based solutions like multi-purpose reefs with beach nourishment are increasingly urgent.

In California, where coastal development is dense and natural sand supplies are limited, the Reef + Sand concept represents a promising alternative to traditional coastal protection methods like jetties, groins, seawalls, and breakwaters.

Further research, pilot projects, and collaborations with federal agencies such as the US Army Corps of Engineers are essential to refine the design and implementation of these structures.

We understand that the City of Pacifica has begun partnering with the USACE to potentially receive sand from its dredging operations in the San Francisco Mainship Channel and has requested a General Investigation (GI) study with USACE to examine potential solutions to Pacifica's broader erosion and coastal flooding problems.

These are great steps.

With a changing climate, rising sea levels, and a dense coastal population that has limited opportunities to retreat yet rely on the coast and beaches for social wellbeing and tourism, we feel it is time to consider the Reef + Sand concept.

With proper planning and investment, multi-purpose reefs with beach nourishment could play a crucial role in protecting and enhancing coastal regions for future generations.

Words by Bob Battalio, Robert Caughlan, George Domurat, Brian Gerrity, and Tom Kendall